Ua komo ʻo Homo sapiens i kēia manawa i ka nui o nā loli kaiaola, akā paʻakikī ke ʻike i ke kumu a i ʻole nā ​​hopena mua o kēia mau ʻano.Archeology, geochronology, geomorphology, and paleoenvironmental data from northern Malawi documents the changing relationship between the presence of foragers, ecosystem organization, and alluvial fan formation in the Late Pleistocene.Ma hope o ke kenekulia 20, ua hoʻokumu ʻia kahi ʻōnaehana paʻa o nā mea hana Mesolithic a me nā mea pā alluvial.ʻO 92,000 mau makahiki i hala aku nei, i ka paleo-ecological environment, ʻaʻohe analogue i ka moʻolelo 500,000 makahiki i hala.Hōʻike ka ʻikepili archaeological a me ka loiloi hoʻonohonoho kumu i nā ahi i hana mua ʻia e ke kanaka i hoʻomaha i nā kau palena o ka ʻā ʻana, e pili ana i ka hoʻohui ʻana i nā mea kanu a me ka ʻā.ʻO kēia, i hui pū ʻia me ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka ua i alakaʻi ʻia i ke aniau, ua alakaʻi i kahi hoʻololi kaiaola i ka ʻāina mua o ka mahiʻai.
He mea hoʻoikaika ikaika nā kānaka o kēia wā i ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka kaiaola.No nā kaukani makahiki, ua hoʻololi nui lākou i ke kaiapuni a me ka manaʻo, e hoʻāla ana i ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa e pili ana i ka wā a me pehea i puka mai ai ke kaiaola mua i hoʻomalu ʻia e ke kanaka (1).Hōʻike ʻia ka nui o nā ʻike archaeological a me ka lāhui i ka nui o nā pilina recursive ma waena o nā foragers a me ko lākou kaiapuni, e hōʻike ana ʻo kēia mau ʻano ke kumu o kā mākou ʻano evolution (2-4).Hōʻike ka ʻikepili mōʻalihaku a me ka moʻo i ka noho ʻana o Homo sapiens ma ʻApelika ma kahi o 315,000 makahiki aku nei (ka).Hōʻike ka ʻikepili archaeological ua piʻi nui ka paʻakikī o nā ʻano hana ma waena o ka ʻāina i ka wā i hala ma kahi o 300 a 200 ka spans.Ka hopena o ka Pleistocene (Chibanian) (5).Mai ko mākou puka ʻana mai ma ke ʻano he ʻano ʻano, ua hoʻomaka ke kanaka e hilinaʻi i ka ʻenehana ʻenehana, nā hoʻonohonoho kau, a me ka launa pū ʻana e ulu ai.ʻO kēia mau hiʻohiʻona e hiki ai iā mākou ke hoʻohana pono i nā kaiapuni a me nā kumu waiwai i noho ʻole ʻia ma mua, no laila i kēia lā ʻo ke kanaka wale nō nā ʻano holoholona pan-global (6).He kuleana ko ke ahi ma keia hoololi ana (7).
Hōʻike nā kumu hoʻohālike olaola hiki ke huli ʻia ka hiki ke hoʻololi i ka meaʻai i kuke ʻia i ka liʻiliʻi 2 miliona mau makahiki i hala aku nei, akā ʻaʻole hiki i ka hopena o ka Middle Pleistocene i ʻike ʻia nā hōʻike archeological maʻamau o ka mālama ahi (8).ʻO ke kai moana me nā palapala lepo mai kahi nui o ka ʻāina ʻApelika e hōʻike ana i nā miliona mau makahiki i hala, ua ʻike ʻia ka piko o ka carbon elemental ma hope o 400 ka, ʻoi loa i ka wā o ka hoʻololi ʻana mai ka interglacial a i ka glacial period, akā ua hana pū ʻia i loko. ka Holocene (9).Hōʻike kēia ma mua o 400 ka, ʻaʻole maʻamau nā ahi ma lalo o Saharan Africa, a he mea nui nā hāʻawi kanaka i ka Holocene (9).ʻO ke ahi kahi mea hana i hoʻohana ʻia e nā kahu hānai ma ka Holocene e mahi a mālama i ka mauʻu (10).Eia nō naʻe, ʻoi aku ka paʻakikī o ka ʻike ʻana i ka hope a me ka hopena o ke kaiaola o ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke ahi e ka poʻe hunter-gatherers i ka Pleistocene mua (11).
Ua kapa ʻia ke ahi he mea hana ʻenekinia no ka hoʻopololei ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai ma ka ethnography a me ka archeology, me ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i ka hoʻihoʻi ola a i ʻole ka hoʻololi ʻana i nā mea maka.Pili pinepine kēia mau hana i ka hoʻolālā lehulehu a koi i ka ʻike kaiaola (2, 12, 13).Hiki i ka poʻe hahai holoholona ke hoʻokuke i nā mea pio, hoʻomalu i nā mea ʻino, a hoʻonui i ka huahana o ka noho ʻana (2).Hoʻoikaika ke ahi ma ka pūnaewele i ka kuke ʻana, ka hoʻomehana ʻana, ka pale ʻana i ka predator, a me ka launa pū ʻana (14).Eia nō naʻe, ʻo ka nui o ka hiki ke hoʻonohonoho hou ʻia e nā ahi hunter-gatherer i nā ʻāpana o ka ʻāina, e like me ke ʻano o ke kaiāulu kaiaola a me ka topography, he pohihihi loa (15, 16).
Me ka ʻole o ka ʻikepili archaeological a me ka geomorphological a me nā moʻolelo kaiapuni mau mai nā wahi he nui, pilikia ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i ka hoʻomohala ʻana o nā loli kaiaola i hoʻokumu ʻia e ke kanaka.ʻO nā moʻolelo hoʻopaʻa wai lōʻihi mai ka Great Rift Valley ma ʻApelika Hema, i hui pū ʻia me nā moʻolelo archaeological kahiko ma ia wahi, lilo ia i wahi e noiʻi ai i nā hopena kaiaola i hoʻokumu ʻia e ka Pleistocene.Maʻaneʻi, hōʻike mākou i ka archeology a me ka geomorphology o kahi ʻāina nui o Stone Age ma ka hema-waena o ʻApelika.A laila, hoʻopili mākou iā ia me ka ʻikepili paleoenvironmental spanning >600 ka no ka hoʻoholo ʻana i nā hōʻike hoʻohui mua loa o ke ʻano kanaka a me ka hoʻololi kaiaolaola i loko o ka pōʻaiapili o ke ahi i hana ʻia e ke kanaka.
Hāʻawi mākou i kahi palena makahiki i hōʻike ʻole ʻia ma mua no ka moena ʻo Chitimwe ma ka Apana Karonga, aia ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻākau o ka ʻaoʻao ʻākau o Malawi ma ka ʻaoʻao hema o ʻApelika Rift Valley (Figure 1) (17).Ua haku ʻia kēia mau moena me nā pā aluvial lepo ʻulaʻula a me nā sediment muliwai, e uhi ana ma kahi o 83 kilomika square, i loaʻa nā miliona o nā huahana pōhaku, akā ʻaʻohe mea i mālama ʻia, e like me nā iwi (Supplementary text) (18).Ua hoʻololi kā mākou ʻikepili o ka ʻikepili o ka ʻike o ka honua (Figure 2 a me nā Papa S1 a i S3) i ka makahiki o ka moena Chitimwe a hiki i ka Late Pleistocene, a ʻo ka makahiki kahiko loa o ka hoʻoulu ʻana o nā mea aloha a me ke kanu ʻana i ka pōhaku ma kahi o 92 ka ( 18, 19).Uhi ka papa alluvial a me ka muliwai Chitimwe i nā loko a me nā muliwai o ka papa Pliocene-Pleistocene Chiwondo mai kahi haʻahaʻa like ʻole (17).Aia kēia mau waihona i loko o ka wili hewa ma ka lihi o ka loko.Hōʻike ko lākou hoʻonohonoho ʻana i ka pilina ma waena o ka piʻi ʻana o ka pae loko a me nā hewa ikaika e hoʻonui ana i ka Pliocene (17).ʻOiai ua pili paha ka hana tectonic i ka topography āpana a me ka piedmont slope no ka manawa lōʻihi, ua lohi paha ka hana hewa ma kēia wahi mai ka Middle Pleistocene (20).Ma hope o ~800 ka a ma hope koke iho o ka 100 ka, ʻo ka hydrology o Lake Malawi e alakaʻi nui ʻia e ke aniau (21).No laila, ʻaʻole ʻo ia wale nō ka wehewehe ʻana no ka hoʻokumu ʻana o nā mea pā alluvial i ka Late Pleistocene (22).
(A) ʻO kahi o ke kikowaena ʻApelika e pili ana i ka ua hou (asterisk);ʻoi aku ka pulu a ʻoi aku ka maloʻo o ka ʻulaʻula (73);ʻo ka pahu ma ka hema e hōʻike ana i ka Lake Malawi a me nā wahi e pili ana MAL05-2A a me MAL05-1B ʻO kahi o ka / 1C core (purple dot), kahi i hōʻikeʻia ai ka'āpana Karonga ma keʻano he'ōmaʻomaʻo'ōmaʻomaʻo, aʻo kahi o ka moena Luchamange e hōʻikeʻia. he pahu keʻokeʻo.(B) ʻO ka ʻaoʻao ʻākau o Malawi basin, e hōʻike ana i ka topography hillshade e pili ana i ke kumu MAL05-2A, ke koena Chitimwe moena (brown patch) a me ka wahi e ʻeli ai o ka Malawi Early Mesolithic Project (MEMSAP) (ke kiko melemele) );CHA, Chaminade;MGD, ke kauhale o Mwanganda;NGA, Ngara;SS, Sadara Hema;VIN, kiʻi puke moʻokalaleo;WW, Beluga.
ʻO ka makahiki waena OSL (laina ʻulaʻula) a me ka laulā hewa o 1-σ (25% hina), nā makahiki OSL āpau e pili ana i ka hanana ʻana o nā mea hana in situ ma Karonga.ʻO ka makahiki pili i ka 125 ka ʻikepili i hala e hōʻike ana (A) nā helu helu ʻana o ka kernel no nā makahiki OSL a pau mai nā sediment peʻahi alluvial, e hōʻike ana i ka hōʻiliʻili sedimentary/alluvial fan (cyan), a me ke kūkulu hou ʻana i ka pae wai o ka loko ma muli o ka helu ʻana o ka ʻāpana kumu (PCA) waiwai waiwai Aquatic nā mōʻalihaʻi a me nā minela authigenic (21) (uliuli) mai ke kumu MAL05-1B/1C.(B) Mai ke kumu MAL05-1B/1C (ʻeleʻele, kahi waiwai kokoke i 7000 me kahi asterisk) a me ka MAL05-2A core (hina), nā helu o ka kalapona macromolecular no ka gram i hoʻohālikelike ʻia e ka sedimentation rate.(C) Margalef species richness index (Dmg) from MAL05-1B/1C core fossil pollen.(D) Ka pākēneka o ka pollen mōʻalihaku mai Compositae, ka ululāʻau miombo a me ka Olea europaea, a (E) Ka pākēneka o ka pollen fossil mai Poaceae a me Podocarpus.No ka MAL05-1B/1C ka ʻikepili pollen a pau.ʻO nā helu ma luna e pili ana i nā laʻana OSL pākahi i kikoʻī ʻia ma nā Papa S1 a i S3.ʻO ka ʻokoʻa o ka loaʻa ʻana o ka ʻikepili a me ka hoʻonā ʻana ma muli o nā ʻokoʻa sampling a me ka loaʻa ʻana o nā mea i loko o ke kumu.Hōʻike ka Kiʻi S9 i ʻelua mau moʻolelo kalapona macro i hoʻololi ʻia i nā helu-z.
(Chitimwe) Hōʻike ʻia ka paʻa o ka ʻāina ma hope o ka hoʻokumu ʻia ʻana o ka peʻa e ka hoʻokumu ʻia ʻana o ka lepo ʻulaʻula a me nā carbonates e hoʻokumu ai i ka lepo, e uhi ana i nā sediment ʻano peʻa o ka wahi aʻo holoʻokoʻa (He kikokikona hou a me ka Papa S4).ʻAʻole i kaupalena ʻia ka hoʻokumu ʻana o Late Pleistocene alluvial fans ma ka Lake Malawi Basin i ka ʻāpana Karonga.Ma kahi o 320 mau kilomita ma ka hikina hema o Mozambique, ua kaupalena ka ʻike hohonu o ka honua cosmogenic nuclide o 26Al a me 10Be i ka hoʻokumu ʻana o ka moena Luchamange o ka lepo ʻulaʻula alluvial i 119 a 27 ka (23).Ua kūlike kēia palena makahiki me kā mākou OSL chronology no ka ʻaoʻao komohana o ka Lake Malawi Basin a hōʻike i ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o nā mea pā alluvial kūloko i ka Late Pleistocene.Kākoʻo ʻia kēia e ka ʻikepili mai ka mooolelo kumu o ka loko, e hōʻike ana i ka piʻi ʻana o ka sedimentation kiʻekiʻe e pili ana me 240 ka, a ʻoi aku ka nui o ka waiwai ma ca.130 a me 85 ka ( kikokikona hou) (21).
ʻO ka hōʻike mua loa o ka noho ʻana o ke kanaka ma kēia wahi pili i nā sediment Chitimwe i ʻike ʻia ma ~92 ± 7 ka.Hoʻokumu ʻia kēia hopena ma luna o 605 m3 o nā sediments i ʻeli ʻia mai 14 sub-centimeter space control archaeological excavations a me 147 m3 o sediments mai 46 archaeological hoʻāʻo lua, hoʻomalu vertically a hiki i 20 knm a horizontally hoʻomalu ʻia i 2 mika (He kikokikona hou a me nā Kiʻi S1 a i S3) Eia hou, ua noiʻi mākou i 147.5 mau kilomita, hoʻonohonoho i 40 mau lua hoʻāʻo honua, a ua kālailai ʻia ma mua o 38,000 mau moʻomeheu moʻomeheu mai 60 o lākou (Paʻa S5 a me S6) (18).Ke hōʻike nei kēia mau noiʻi nui a me ka ʻeli ʻana ʻoiai ua noho nā kānaka kahiko me nā kānaka o kēia wā ma kahi o 92 mau makahiki aku nei, ʻo ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana o nā sediment e pili ana i ka piʻi ʻana a me ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana o Lake Malawi ʻaʻole i mālama i nā hōʻike archaeological a hiki i ka hoʻokumu ʻana i ka moena Chitimwe.
Kākoʻo ka ʻikepili archaeological i ka manaʻo i ka hopena o Quaternary, ua nui ka nui o ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka peʻa a me nā hana kanaka ma Malawi akau, a ʻo nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu no nā ʻano o nā ʻāpana ʻē aʻe o ʻApelika e pili ana i nā kānaka o kēia wā.Hana ʻia ka hapa nui o nā mea kiʻi me ka quartzite a i ʻole ka quartz river pebbles, me ka radial, Levallois, platform a me ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa kumu maʻamau (Figure S4).Hoʻopili ʻia nā mea hana diagnostic morphological i ka Mesolithic Age (MSA)-specific Levallois-type technique, ʻo ia ka mea ma kahi o 315 ka ma ʻApelika a hiki i kēia manawa (24).ʻO ka moena kiʻekiʻe loa ʻo Chitimwe a hiki i ka Holocene mua, i loaʻa i nā hanana Late Stone Age, a ua ʻike ʻia e pili ana i ka poʻe Pleistocene a me Holocene hunter-gatherers a puni ʻApelika.ʻO ka ʻokoʻa, ʻaʻole loaʻa nā kuʻuna mea hana pōhaku (e like me nā mea hana ʻoki nui) e pili ana me ka Early Middle Pleistocene.Ma kahi i hana ʻia ai kēia mau mea, loaʻa iā lākou i loko o nā sediments me MSA i ka Pleistocene hope loa, ʻaʻole i ka wā mua o ka waiho ʻana (Pable S4) (18).ʻOiai aia ka pūnaewele ma ~ 92 ka, ʻo ka manawa ʻoi loa o ka hana a ke kanaka a me ka neʻe ʻana o ka fan alluvial i loaʻa ma hope o ~ 70 ka, i wehewehe maikaʻi ʻia e kahi o nā makahiki OSL (Figure 2).Ua hōʻoia mākou i kēia ʻano me 25 i paʻi ʻia a me 50 mau makahiki OSL i paʻi ʻole ʻia (Figure 2 a me nā Papa S1 a i S3).Hōʻike kēia mau mea mai ka huina o 75 mau makahiki hoʻoholo, 70 i hoʻihoʻi ʻia mai ka sediment ma hope o 70 ka.Hōʻike ka Kiʻi 2 i nā makahiki 40 e pili ana i nā mea hana MSA in-situ, e pili ana i nā hōʻailona paleoenvironmental nui i paʻi ʻia mai ke kikowaena o MAL05-1B/1C waena (25) a me ka MAL05-2A i paʻi ʻole ʻia ma mua o ka loko.Lahu (e pili ana i ka peʻahi e hoʻopuka ai i ka makahiki OSL).
Ke hoʻohana nei i nā ʻikepili hou mai ka ʻeli ʻana o nā phytoliths a me ka micromorphology lepo, a me ka ʻikepili lehulehu e pili ana i ka pollen fossil, ka lanahu nui, nā fossil aquatic a me nā minela authigenic mai ke kumu o ka Malawi Lake Drilling Project, ua kūkulu hou mākou i ka pilina kanaka MSA me Lake Malawi.Noho i ke ea a me ke kaiapuni o ka manawa like (21).ʻO nā mea hope ʻelua ke kumu nui no ke kūkulu hou ʻana i ka hohonu o ka loko pili e pili ana i ʻoi aku ma mua o 1200 ka (21), a ua hoʻohālikelike ʻia me ka pollen a me nā laʻana macrocarbon i hōʻiliʻili ʻia mai ka wahi like i ke kumu o ~636 ka (25) i hala. .ʻO nā cores lōʻihi loa (MAL05-1B a me MAL05-1C; 381 a me 90 m i kēlā me kēia) ua hōʻiliʻili ʻia ma kahi o 100 mau kilomita ma ka hikina hema o ka wahi hana archaeological.Ua ʻohi ʻia kahi kumu pōkole (MAL05-2A; 41 m) ma kahi o 25 mau kilomita ma ka hikina o ka muliwai ʻo Rukulu ʻĀkau (Figure 1).Hōʻike ka MAL05-2A i nā kūlana paleoenvironmental terrestrial ma ka ʻāina ʻo Kalunga, ʻoiai ʻaʻole i loaʻa i ka core MAL05-1B/1C ka hoʻokomo pololei ʻana o ka muliwai mai ke Kalunga, no laila hiki iā ia ke hōʻike maikaʻi i nā kūlana kūloko.
Hoʻomaka ka helu deposition i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma ka MAL05-1B/1C composite drill core mai 240 ka a hoʻonui ʻia mai ka waiwai awelika lōʻihi o 0.24 a i 0.88 m/ka (Figure S5).ʻO ka hoʻonui mua e pili ana i nā loli i ka lā orbital modulated, kahi e hoʻololi ai i ka kiʻekiʻe amplitude i ka pae loko i kēia wā (25).Eia nō naʻe, ke hāʻule ka orbital eccentricity ma hope o 85 ka a paʻa ke ea, ʻoi aku ka kiʻekiʻe o ka subsidence rate (0.68 m/ka).Keia coincided me ka terrestrial OSL mooolelo, i hoike nui hoike o ka alluvial fan hoonui ma hope o 92 ka, a ua kulike me ka susceptibility ikepili e hōʻike ana i ka maikaʻi correlation ma waena o erosion a me ke ahi ma hope o 85 ka (Supplementary kikokikona a me ka Papa S7).I ka nānā ʻana i ka laulā hewa o ka mana geochronological i loaʻa, ʻaʻole hiki ke hoʻoholo i ka ulu mālie ʻana o kēia pūʻulu o nā pilina mai ka holomua o ke kaʻina recursive a i ʻole e hū koke i ka wā e hiki ai i kahi koʻikoʻi.E like me ka geophysical kŘkohu o ke kīʻaha evolution, mai ka Middle Pleistocene (20), rift hoʻonui a me ka pili subsidence ua lohi iho, no laila, 'aʻole ia ke kumu nui o ka nui fan hoʻokumu kaʻina hana mākou i hoʻoholo nui ma hope o 92 ka.
Mai ka Middle Pleistocene, ʻo ke aniau ke kumu hoʻomalu nui o ka pae wai loko (26).ʻO ka mea kikoʻī, ua pani ka piʻi ʻana o ke kahawai ʻākau i kahi puka e kū nei.800 ka e hoʻohonu i ka loko a hiki i ke kiʻekiʻe o ka paepae puka o kēia wā (21).Aia ma ka ʻaoʻao hema o ka loko, ua hāʻawi kēia puka i ka palena kiʻekiʻe no ke kiʻekiʻe o ka wai i ka wā maloʻo (me kēia lā), akā ua ʻae ke kīʻaha e pani i ka hāʻule ʻana o ka wai o ka loko i ka wā maloʻo (27).ʻO ke kūkulu hou ʻana i ka pae loko e hōʻike ana i nā pōʻai maloʻo a me ka pulu i ka 636 ka i hala.Wahi a nā hōʻike mai ka pollen mōʻalihaku, ʻo nā wā maloʻo loa (> 95% ka emi ʻana o ka wai piha) pili me ka lā haʻahaʻa o ke kauwela ua alakaʻi i ka hoʻonui ʻana i nā mea kanu semi-desert, me nā kumu lāʻau i kaupalena ʻia i nā ala wai mau (27).Hoʻopili ʻia kēia mau wahi haʻahaʻa (loko) me ka ʻano pollen spectra, e hōʻike ana i ka hapa kiʻekiʻe o nā mauʻu (80% a ʻoi aʻe paha) a me nā xerophytes (Amaranthaceae) ma ka lilo o ka ʻauhau kumulāʻau a me ka haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa o nā ʻano ʻano waiwai (25).ʻO ka ʻokoʻa, ke hoʻokokoke ka loko i nā pae hou, ʻo nā mea kanu pili kokoke i nā ululāʻau mauna ʻApelika e hoʻonui pinepine ʻia i kahakai [ma kahi o 500 m ma luna o ka ʻilikai (masl)].I kēia lā, ʻike ʻia nā ululāʻau mauna ʻApelika ma nā ʻāpana liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi ma luna o 1500 masl (25, 28).
ʻO ka manawa maloʻo loa loa mai 104 a 86 ka.Ma hope o kēlā, ʻoiai ua hoʻi ka pae loko i nā kūlana kiʻekiʻe, ua maʻa mau nā ululāʻau miombo me ka nui o nā mea kanu a me nā mea kanu (27, 28).ʻO ka ʻauhau o ka nahele mauna ʻApelika koʻikoʻi ʻo Podocarpus pine, ʻaʻole i hoʻihoʻi hou ʻia i kahi waiwai like me ka pae wai kiʻekiʻe ma mua ma hope o 85 ka (10.7 ± 7.6% ma hope o 85 ka, ʻoiai ʻo ka pae loko like ma mua o 85 ka he 29.8 ± 11.8% ).Hōʻike pū ka Margalef index (Dmg) he 43% ka haʻahaʻa o ka waiwai o nā ʻano ʻano o ka 85 ka i hala ma mua o ka pae wai kiʻekiʻe i hoʻomau mua ʻia (2.3 ± 0.20 a me 4.6 ± 1.21, i kēlā me kēia), no ka laʻana, ma waena o 420 a me 345 ka (Supplementary). kikokikona a me nā huahelu S5 a me S6) (25).Nā laʻana pollen mai ka manawa like.Loaʻa i ka 88 a hiki i ka 78 ka ka pākēneka kiʻekiʻe o ka pollen Compositae, kahi e hōʻike ai ua hoʻopilikia ʻia ka mea kanu a aia i loko o ka pae hewa o ka lā kahiko loa i ka wā i noho ai ke kanaka ma ia wahi.
Hoʻohana mākou i ke ʻano anomaly aniau (29) no ke kālailai ʻana i ka ʻikepili paleoecological a me ka paleoclimate o nā cores i wili ʻia ma mua a ma hope o 85 ka, a nānā i ka pilina kaiaola ma waena o nā mea kanu, ka nui o nā ʻano, a me ka ua a me ke kuhiakau o ka wehe ʻana i ka wānana maʻemaʻe i manaʻo ʻia.E hoʻokele i ke ʻano kumu kumu o ~550 ka.Hoʻopili ʻia kēia kaiaola i hoʻololi ʻia e nā kūlana ua piha i ka loko a me nā ahi, i ʻike ʻia i ka nele o nā ʻano a me nā hui ʻana o nā mea kanu hou.Ma hope o ka wā maloʻo hope loa, ʻo kekahi mau mea ulu lāʻau wale nō i hoʻihoʻi ʻia, me nā ʻāpana pale ahi o nā ululāʻau mauna o ʻApelika, e like me ka aila ʻoliva, a me nā mea pale ahi o nā ululāʻau kau wela, e like me Celtis (Supplementary text and Figure S5) ( 25).No ka hoʻāʻo ʻana i kēia kuhiakau, ua hoʻohālike mākou i nā pae wai loko i loaʻa mai ka ostracode a me nā mea pani mineral authigenic ma ke ʻano he mau ʻokoʻa kūʻokoʻa (21) a me nā mea hoʻololi hilinaʻi e like me ka lanahu a me ka pollen e hoʻopili ʻia e ka piʻi ʻana o ke ahi (25).
I mea e nānā ai i ka like a i ʻole ka ʻokoʻa ma waena o kēia mau hui ʻana i nā manawa like ʻole, ua hoʻohana mākou i ka pollen mai Podocarpus (lāʻau evergreen), mauʻu (mauʻu), a me ka ʻoliva (mea pale ahi o nā ululāʻau mauna ʻApelika) no ka loiloi hoʻonohonoho kumu (PCoA), a me ka miombo (ka mea nui o ka ululāʻau i kēia lā).Ma ka hoʻolālā ʻana i ka PCoA ma ka ʻili i hoʻopili ʻia e hōʻike ana i ka pae loko i ka wā i hoʻokumu ʻia ai kēlā me kēia hui ʻana, ua nānā mākou i ka loli ʻana o ka hui pollen e pili ana i ka ua a me ke ʻano o kēia pilina ma hope o 85 ka (Figure 3 a me Figure S7).Ma mua o ka 85 ka, ua hoʻohui ʻia nā laʻana ma muli o ka gramineous i kahi maloʻo, aʻo ka podocarpus i hoʻohui ʻia i nā kūlana pulu.ʻO ka ʻokoʻa, ʻo nā laʻana ma hope o 85 ka ua hui pū ʻia me ka hapa nui o nā laʻana ma mua o 85 ka a loaʻa nā kumu waiwai ʻokoʻa, e hōʻike ana he ʻokoʻa ko lākou haku ʻana no nā kūlana ua like.ʻO ko lākou kūlana ma PCoA e hōʻike ana i ka mana o Olea a me ka miombo, ua makemakeʻia nā meaʻelua ma lalo o nā kūlana iʻoi aku ka maʻalahi o ke ahi.Ma nā laʻana ma hope o 85 ka, ua nui wale ka Podocarpus pine i ʻekolu mau laʻana like ʻole, i loaʻa ma hope o ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ka wā ma waena o 78 a me 79 ka.Hōʻike kēia ma hope o ka piʻi mua ʻana o ka ua, me he mea lā ua hoʻōla iki ka nahele ma mua o ka hāʻule ʻana.
Hōʻike kēlā me kēia kiko i kahi laʻana pollen hoʻokahi i ka manawa i hāʻawi ʻia, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke kikokikona hoʻohui a me ke kumu hoʻohālike makahiki ma ke Kiʻi 1. S8.Hōʻike ka vector i ke kuhikuhi a me ka gradient o ka loli, a ʻo ka vector lōʻihi e hōʻike ana i kahi ʻano ikaika.Hōʻike ka ʻili lalo i ka pae wai o ka loko ma ke ʻano he hōʻailona o ka ua;ʻoi aku ka kiʻekiʻe o ka uliuli ʻeleʻele.Hāʻawi ʻia ka waiwai awelika o nā waiwai hiʻohiʻona PCoA no ka ʻikepili ma hope o 85 ka (diamana ʻulaʻula) a me nā ʻikepili āpau mai nā pae loko like ma mua o 85 ka (diamana melemele).Ke hoʻohana nei i ka ʻikepili o ka 636 ka holoʻokoʻa, ʻo ka "like lake level" ma waena o -0.130-σ a me -0.198-σ kokoke i ka awelika eigenvalue o ka lake level PCA.
I mea e aʻo ai i ka pilina ma waena o ka pollen, ka pae wai loko a me ka lanahu, ua hoʻohana mākou i ka nonparametric multivariate analysis of variance (NP-MANOVA) e hoʻohālikelike i ka "kaiapuni" holoʻokoʻa (e hōʻike ʻia e ka matrix data o ka pollen, ka pae wai loko a me ka lanahu) ma mua. a mahope o ka hoololi 85 ka.Ua ʻike mākou ʻo ka hoʻololi a me ka covariance i loaʻa i kēia matrix data he mau ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi ma mua a ma hope o ka 85 ka (Pakaukau 1).
ʻO kā mākou ʻikepili paleo kaiapuni honua mai nā phytoliths a me nā lepo ma ka lihi o West Lake e kūlike me ka wehewehe ʻana ma muli o ke koho lake.Hōʻike kēia mau mea, ʻoiai ke kiʻekiʻe o ka wai o ka loko, ua hoʻololi ʻia ka ʻāina i ʻāina i hoʻomalu ʻia e ka ʻāina ululāʻau ākea a me ka mauʻu ululāʻau, e like me kēia lā (25).ʻO nā wahi āpau i kālailai ʻia no nā phytoliths ma ka ʻaoʻao komohana o ke kīʻaha ma hope o ~45 ka a hōʻike i ka nui o ka uhi arboreal e hōʻike ana i nā kūlana pulu.Eia naʻe, manaʻo lākou ʻo ka hapa nui o ka mulch ma ke ʻano o ka ululāʻau ākea i ulu ʻia me ka ʻohe a me ka mauʻu weliweli.Wahi a ka ʻikepili phytolith, aia nā lāʻau pāma kūpaʻa ʻole i ke ahi (Arecaceae) ma ke kahakai wale nō o ka loko, a he kakaikahi a ʻaʻole i loaʻa ma nā wahi archaeological uka (Pakaukau S8) (30).
ʻO ka ʻōlelo maʻamau, hiki ke ʻike ʻia nā kūlana pulu akā hāmama i ka hopena o Pleistocene mai nā paleosol terrestrial (19).Hiki ke hoʻihoʻi ʻia ka pālolo a me ka lepo marsh carbonate mai ke kahua archaeological o Mwanganda Village i ka 40 a 28 cal ka BP (Qian'anni i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma mua) (Papa S4).ʻO nā papa lepo carbonate i loko o ka moena Chitimwe he mau nodular calcareous (Bkm) a me argillaceous a me carbonate (Btk), e hōʻike ana i kahi o ka paʻa geomorphological pili a me ka hoʻomaha mālie mai ka mea lele aluvial mamao loa Ma kahi o 29 cal ka BP (Hoʻohui. kikokikona).ʻO ka ʻāina hope i hoʻopau ʻia a paʻakikī (lithic rock) i hana ʻia ma nā koena o nā mea pā kahiko e hōʻike ana i nā kūlana ʻāina ākea (31) a me ka ua ikaika o ka wā (32), e hōʻike ana i ka hopena mau o kēia mau kūlana ma ka ʻāina.
Loaʻa ke kākoʻo no ke ahi i kēia hoʻololi ʻana mai nā moʻolelo lanahu macro hui pū ʻia o nā core drill, a ʻo ke komo ʻana o ka lanahu mai ka Central Basin (MAL05-1B/1C) ua piʻi maʻamau mai kahi.175 kāleka.He heluna nui o nā piko e hahai ana ma waena o kahi.Ma hope o 135 a me 175 ka a me 85 a me 100 ka, ua hoʻi hou ka pae loko, akā ʻaʻole i hoʻihoʻi hou ʻia ka waiwai o ka ululāʻau a me nā ʻano mea (He kikokikona hou, Kiʻi 2 a me Kiʻi S5).ʻO ka pilina ma waena o ka komo ʻana o ka lanahu a me ka hiki ke hoʻohālikelike ʻia o nā sediments loko hiki ke hōʻike i nā hiʻohiʻona o ka mōʻaukala ahi lōʻihi (33).E hoʻohana i ka ʻikepili mai Lyons et al.(34) Ua hoʻomau ʻo Lake Malawi i ka hoʻopau ʻana i ka ʻāina i puhi ʻia ma hope o 85 ka, e hōʻike ana i kahi pilina maikaʻi (Spearman's Rs = 0.2542 a me P = 0.0002; Papa S7), ʻoiai nā sediments kahiko e hōʻike i ka pilina kūʻē (Rs = -0.2509 a me P < 0.0001).Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻākau, ʻo ka pōkole MAL05-2A ʻoi loa ka hohonu o ka heleuma, a ʻo ka ʻōpio Toba tuff he ~74 a 75 ka (35).ʻOiai ʻaʻohe ona manaʻo no ka wā lōʻihi, loaʻa iā ia ka hoʻokomo pololei mai ke kīʻaha kahi i loaʻa ai ka ʻikepili archaeological.Hōʻike nā moʻolelo lanahu o ke kīʻaha ʻākau mai ka hōʻailona ʻo Toba crypto-tephra, ua hoʻonui mau ʻia ka hoʻokomo ʻana o ka lanahu terrigenous i ka wā i maʻa mau nā hōʻike archaeological (Figure 2B).
Hiki i nā hōʻike o ke ahi i hana ʻia e ke kanaka ke hōʻike i ka hoʻohana ʻia ʻana ma ke ʻano ʻāina, ka lehulehu ākea e hoʻonui a nui aʻe paha ma ka pūnaewele, hoʻololi i ka loaʻa wahie ma o ka ʻohi ʻana i nā ululāʻau lalo, a i ʻole ka hui pū ʻana o kēia mau hana.Hoʻohana ka poʻe hunter-gatherers i kēia manawa i ke ahi e hoʻololi ikaika i nā makana foraging (2).Hoʻonui kā lākou mau hana i ka nui o nā mea pio, mālama i ka ʻāina mosaic, a hoʻonui i ka ʻokoʻa wela a me ka heterogeneity o nā pae holomua (13).He mea nui hoʻi ke ahi no nā hana ma ka pūnaewele e like me ka hoʻomehana, ka kuke ʻana, ka pale, a me ka launa pū ʻana (14).Hiki i nā ʻokoʻa liʻiliʻi o ke kau ʻana i ke ahi ma waho o nā uila uila maoli ke hoʻololi i nā ʻano hoʻohālike o ka ululāʻau, ka loaʻa ʻana o ka wahie, a me ka wā puhi ahi.ʻO ka emi ʻana o ka uhi lāʻau a me nā kumu lāʻau lalo e hoʻonui i ka ʻino, a ʻo ka nalowale ʻana o nā ʻano like ʻole ma kēia wahi e pili kokoke ana i ka nalowale o nā kaiāulu mauna mauna ʻApelika (25).
Ma ka moʻolelo archaeological ma mua o ka hoʻomakaʻana o ka MSA, ua hoʻokumu maikaʻiʻia ka mana kanaka i ke ahi (15), akā i kēia manawa, ua hoʻopaʻaʻia kona hoʻohanaʻana ma keʻano he mea hana hoʻomalu'āina i kekahi mau Paleolithic pōʻaiapili.ʻO kēia mau mea e pili ana i Australia.40 ka (36), Highland New Guinea.45 ka (37) kuikahi maluhia.50 ka Niah Cave (38) in lowland Borneo.Ma ʻAmelika, i ka wā i komo mua ai ke kanaka i kēia mau kaiaola, ʻoi aku hoʻi i ka 20 ka (16) i hala iho nei, ua manaʻo ʻia ʻo ka hoʻāla ʻana ke kumu nui o ka hoʻoponopono hou ʻana i nā kaiāulu mea kanu a me nā holoholona.Pono e hoʻokumu ʻia kēia mau manaʻo i nā hōʻike kūpono, akā i ka hihia o ka hoʻopili pololei ʻana i nā ʻikepili archaeological, geological, geomorphological, a paleoenvironmental, ua hoʻoikaika ʻia ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa kumu.ʻOiai ua hōʻike mua ʻia nā ʻikepili koʻikoʻi moana o nā kai kahakai o ʻApelika i nā hōʻike o nā loli ahi i ka wā i hala ma kahi o 400 ka (9), eia mākou e hāʻawi i nā hōʻike o ka mana kanaka mai nā pūʻulu ʻike archaeological, paleoenvironmental, a me geomorphological.
ʻO ka ʻike ʻana i nā ahi i hana ʻia e ke kanaka i loko o nā moʻolelo paleoenvironmental pono e hōʻike i nā hana ahi a me nā hoʻololi kino a i ʻole nā ​​​​spatial o nā mea kanu, e hōʻike ana ʻaʻole i wānana ʻia kēia mau loli e nā ʻāpana aniau wale nō, a me ke ʻano o ke kino/spatial ma waena o nā loli i nā kūlana ahi a me nā loli kanaka. moʻolelo (29) Maʻaneʻi,ʻo ka hōʻike mua o ka hoʻolaha nuiʻana o ka MSA a me ka hoʻokumuʻiaʻana o ka peʻahi alluvial i loko o ke kahawaiʻo Lake Malawi i hanaʻia ma kahi kokoke i ka hoʻomakaʻana o kahi hoʻonohonoho hou o nā mea kanu āpau.85 kāleka.Hōʻike ka nui o ka lanahu i loko o ka MAL05-1B/1C core i ke ʻano kūloko o ka hana ʻana a me ka waiho ʻana o ka lanahu, ma kahi o 150 ka hoʻohālikelike ʻia me ke koena o ka moʻolelo 636 ka (Figures S5, S9, a me S10).Hōʻike kēia hoʻololi i ka haʻawina koʻikoʻi o ke ahi i ka hana ʻana i ke ʻano o ke kaiaola, ʻaʻole hiki ke wehewehe ʻia e ke aniau wale nō.I nā kūlana ahi maoli, ʻā mau ka uila i ka hopena o ke kau maloʻo (39).Eia naʻe, inā maloʻo ka wahie, hiki ke hoʻā ʻia ke ahi i hana ʻia e ke kanaka i kēlā me kēia manawa.Ma ke ʻano o ke ʻano, hiki i nā kānaka ke hoʻololi mau i ke ahi ma o ka ʻohi ʻana i ka wahie mai lalo o ka ululāʻau.ʻO ka hopena o kēlā me kēia ʻano ahi i hana ʻia e ke kanaka, ʻo ia ka mea hiki ke hoʻonui i ka ʻai ʻana i nā mea kanu lāʻau, e mau ana i ka makahiki, a ma nā unahi āpau.
Ma ʻApelika Hema, i ka makahiki 164 ka (12), ua hoʻohana ʻia ke ahi no ka hoʻomaʻamaʻa ʻana i nā pōhaku mea hana.Ma kahi o 170 ka (40), ua hoʻohana ʻia ke ahi i mea hana no ka kuke ʻana i nā ʻuala mākū, me ka hoʻohana piha ʻana i ke ahi i ka wā kahiko.Na Waiwai-Pono (41).ʻO ke ahi ʻāina e hoʻemi i ka uhi o ka arboreal a he mea hana koʻikoʻi ia no ka mālama ʻana i ka mauʻu a me nā ʻāpana ulu lāʻau, ʻo ia nā mea wehewehe o nā kaiaola i hoʻopili ʻia e ke kanaka (13).Inā ʻo ke kumu o ka hoʻololi ʻana i nā mea kanu a i ʻole nā ​​​​mea pio e hoʻonui i ke ahi i hana ʻia e ke kanaka, a laila ua hōʻike kēia ʻano i ka piʻi ʻana o ka paʻakikī o ka mālama ʻana a me ka lawe ʻana i ke ahi e nā poʻe kahiko o kēia wā i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā kānaka kahiko, a hōʻike i ka pili ʻana o kā mākou pilina me ke ahi. hoʻololi i ka pilina pili (7).Hāʻawi kā mākou loiloi i kahi ala hou e hoʻomaopopo ai i nā loli i ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke ahi e nā kānaka i ka Late Pleistocene, a me ka hopena o kēia mau loli i ko lākou ʻāina a me ka ʻāina.
ʻO ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o ka Late Quaternary alluvial fans ma ka ʻāina Karonga ma muli paha o ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka pōʻaiapuni o ke ahi ma lalo o nā kūlana ʻoi aku ka kiʻekiʻe ma mua o ka ua awelika, e alakaʻi ana i ka piʻi ʻana o ka ʻili o ka puʻu.ʻO ke ʻano o kēia hanana ʻana paha ʻo ia ka pane ʻana i ka nui o ka wai i alakaʻi ʻia e ka haunaele i hoʻokumu ʻia e ke ahi, ka hoʻonui ʻia a hoʻomau ʻia o ka ʻai ʻana o ka ʻaoʻao o luna o ka wai, a me ka hoʻonui ʻia ʻana o nā mea hoʻoheheʻe alluvial ma ke kaiapuni piedmont kokoke i Lake Malawi.Hiki i kēia mau hopena ke komo i ka hoʻololi ʻana i nā waiwai lepo e hōʻemi i ka permeability, e hōʻemi i ka ʻinoʻino o ka ʻili, a me ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka holo ma muli o ka hui pū ʻana o nā kūlana ua kiʻekiʻe a me ka uhi ʻana o ka arboreal (42).Hoʻomaikaʻi mua ʻia ka loaʻa ʻana o nā sediment ma ka ʻili ʻana i ka mea uhi, a i ka wā lōʻihi, e emi ana ka ikaika o ka lepo ma muli o ka wela a me ka emi ʻana o ka ikaika o ke aʻa.ʻO ka exfoliation o ka topsoil e hoʻonui i ka sediment flux, kahi i hoʻokipa ʻia e ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana i ke ʻano o ka peʻa i lalo a hoʻolalelale i ka hoʻokumu ʻana o ka lepo ʻulaʻula ma luna o ke ʻano fan.
Hiki i nā mea he nui ke hoʻomalu i ka pane ʻana o ka ʻāina i ka hoʻololi ʻana i nā kūlana ahi, ka hapa nui o ia mau hana i loko o kahi manawa pōkole (42-44).ʻO ka hōʻailona a mākou e hui nei ma ʻaneʻi ua ʻike ʻia ma ka pae manawa millennium.Hōʻike nā kumu hoʻohālike a me ka hoʻomohala ʻāina me ka haunaele o nā mea kanu i hana ʻia e nā ahi ahi mau, ua loli nui ka nui o ka denudation ma kahi manawa millennium (45, 46).ʻO ka nele o nā moʻolelo mōʻalihaku āpana i kū like me nā loli i ʻike ʻia i ka lanahu a me nā moʻolelo mea kanu ke keʻakeʻa nei i ke kūkulu hou ʻana i nā hopena o ke ʻano kanaka a me nā loli kaiapuni i ka haku ʻana o nā kaiāulu herbivore.Eia naʻe, he kuleana ko nā herbivores nui e noho ana i nā ʻāina ākea i ka mālama ʻana iā lākou a me ka pale ʻana i ka hoʻouka ʻana o nā mea ulu lāʻau (47).ʻAʻole pono e manaʻo ʻia nā hōʻike o nā loli i nā ʻāpana like ʻole o ke kaiapuni i ka manawa like, akā pono e ʻike ʻia ma ke ʻano he mau hopena kumulative e hiki mai ana ma kahi lōʻihi o ka manawa (11).Ke hoʻohana nei i ke ʻano anomaly aniau (29), ke manaʻo nei mākou i ka hana kanaka ma ke ʻano he kumu hoʻokele nui i ka hana ʻana i ka ʻāina o Malawi ʻākau i ka wā o ka Late Pleistocene.Eia naʻe, hiki ke hoʻokumu ʻia kēia mau hopena ma luna o ka hoʻoilina mua a i ʻike ʻole ʻia o ka pilina kanaka-kaiapuni.ʻO ka piko o ka lanahu i ʻike ʻia i loko o ka moʻolelo paleoenvironmental ma mua o ka lā mua archaeological hiki ke komo i kahi mea anthropogenic ʻaʻole e hoʻololi i ka ʻōnaehana kaiaola like e like me ka mea i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma hope, a ʻaʻole hoʻokomo i nā waihona i lawa e hōʻike wiwo ʻole i ka hana kanaka.
ʻO nā ʻāpana sediment pōkole, e like me nā mea mai ke kahawai ʻo Masoko Lake Basin ma Tanzania, a i ʻole nā ​​ʻāpana sediment pōkole ma Lake Malawi, e hōʻike ana ua loli ka nui o ka pollen o ka mauʻu a me ka ʻauhau o ka ulu lāʻau, ʻo ia ka mea i pili i nā makahiki he 45 i hala.ʻO ka hoʻololi kūlohelohe o ka (48-50).Eia naʻe, ʻo ka nānā ʻana i ka pollen moʻolelo o Lake Malawi> 600 ka, me ka ʻāina archaeological kahiko e pili ana iā ia, hiki ke hoʻomaopopo i ke aniau, nā mea kanu, ka lanahu, a me nā hana kanaka.ʻOiai e ʻike ʻia nā kānaka ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻākau o ka Lake Malawi ma mua o 85 ka, ma kahi o 85 ka, ʻoi aku ma hope o 70 ka, e hōʻike ana he nani ka wahi no ka noho ʻana o ke kanaka ma hope o ka pau ʻana o ka wā maloʻo nui.I kēia manawa, ʻo ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke ahi hou a i ʻole ka hoʻohana pinepine ʻana i ke ahi e nā kānaka, ua ʻike maopopo ʻia me ka hoʻololi ʻana i ke aniau maoli e kūkulu hou i ka pilina kaiaola> 550-ka, a ua hoʻokumu ʻia i ka ʻāina mua o ka mahiʻai mua (Figure 4).ʻAʻole like me nā wā ma mua, mālama ke ʻano sedimentary o ka ʻāina i ka pūnaewele MSA, kahi hana o ka pilina recursive ma waena o ke kaiapuni (ka hoʻoili waiwai), ka hana kanaka (nā ʻano hana), a me ka hoʻoulu ʻana o ka peʻahi (deposition/site burial).
(A) E pili ana.400 ka: ʻAʻole hiki ke ʻike ʻia ke kanaka.Ua like nā ʻano haʻahaʻa me kēia lā, a ua kiʻekiʻe ke kiʻekiʻe o ka loko.Ka uhi arboreal pale ahi like ole.(B) Ma kahi o 100 ka: ʻAʻohe moʻolelo archaeological, akā hiki ke ʻike ʻia ke alo o ke kanaka ma o ka komo ʻana o ka lanahu.Hiki ke kūlana maloʻo loa ma nā kahawai maloʻo.Hōʻike pinepine ʻia ka pōhaku moe a ua kaupalena ʻia nā sediment ili.(C) Ma kahi o 85 a 60 ka: Piʻi ka pae wai o ka loko me ka piʻi ʻana o ka ua.Hiki ke ʻike ʻia ke ola ʻana o ke kanaka ma o ka archeology ma hope o 92 ka, a ma hope o 70 ka, e ʻā ana ke ahi o nā ʻāina kiʻekiʻe a me ka hoʻonui ʻana i nā mea pā aluvial.Ua puka mai kahi ʻōnaehana mea kanu ʻaʻole like ʻole, pale ahi.(D) Ma kahi o 40 a 20 ka: Ua hoʻonui ʻia ka hoʻokomo ʻana o ka lanahu ma ke kahawai ʻākau.Ua hoʻomau ka hoʻokumu ʻana o nā mea aloha alluvial, akā hoʻomaka e nāwaliwali i ka hopena o kēia manawa.Ke hoʻohālikelike ʻia me ka moʻolelo mua o 636 ka, mau ke kiʻekiʻe a paʻa ka pae loko.
Hōʻike ka Anthropocene i ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana o nā ʻano hana niche-building i hoʻomohala ʻia i nā kaukani makahiki, a ʻokoʻa kona ʻano i ka Homo sapiens hou (1, 51).Ma ka pōʻaiapili hou, me ka hoʻokomoʻana i ka mahiʻai, hoʻomau a hoʻoikaikaʻia nā'āina i hanaʻia e ke kanaka, akā, he mau hoʻonui ia o nāʻano i hoʻokumuʻia i ka wā o ka Pleistocene, ma mua o ka weheʻana (52).Hōʻike ka ʻikepili mai ka ʻĀkau ʻo Malawi e hiki ke hoʻolōʻihi ʻia ka wā hoʻololi kaiaola, paʻakikī a hana hou.Hōʻike kēia pālākiō o ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka ʻike kaiaola paʻakikī o nā kānaka o kēia wā kahiko a hōʻike i ko lākou hoʻololi ʻana i kā mākou ʻano mana honua i kēia mau lā.
Wahi a ka protocol i wehewehe ʻia e Thompson et.(53).ʻO ka hoʻokomo ʻana i ka lua hoʻāʻo a me ka ʻeli ʻana o ke kahua nui, me ka micromorphology a me ka phytolith sampling, ma muli o ka protocol i wehewehe ʻia e Thompson et al.(18) a me Wright et al.(19).ʻO kā mākou palapala ʻāina ʻike honua (GIS) e pili ana i ka Malawi geological survey map of the region is a clear correlation between Chitimwe Beds and archaeological sites (Figure S1).ʻO ka wā ma waena o nā lua hoʻokolohua geological a me archaeological ma Karonga kahi e hopu ai i ka hōʻailona hōʻike ākea loa (Figure S2).ʻO ka geomorphology o Karonga, ka makahiki geological a me nā noiʻi archaeological e pili ana i ʻehā mau ʻano noiʻi kahua: nā anaina hele wāwae, nā lua hoʻāʻo archaeological, nā lua hōʻike honua a me nā ʻeli kahua kikoʻī.Hoʻohui pū ʻia kēia mau ʻenehana i ka laʻana o ka ʻike nui o ka moena Chitimwe ma ka ʻākau, waena, a me ka hema o Karonga (Figure S3).
ʻO ka hoʻokolokolo ʻana ma ka pūnaewele a me ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i nā mea waiwai a me nā hiʻohiʻona cobblestone ma ka wahi anaʻi hele wāwae ma muli o ke kaʻina i wehewehe ʻia e Thompson et al.(53).ʻElua mau pahuhopu nui kēia ala.ʻO ka mea mua, ʻo ia ka ʻike ʻana i nā wahi i hoʻopau ʻia ai nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu, a laila kau i nā lua hoʻāʻo archaeological ma luna o kēia mau wahi e hoʻihoʻi i nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu i loko o ka wahi i kanu ʻia.ʻO ka pahuhopu ʻelua, ʻo ia ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ka māhele ʻana o nā mea waiwai, ko lākou ʻano, a me ko lākou pilina me ke kumu o nā mea pōhaku kokoke (53).Ma kēia hana, ua hele kahi hui ʻekolu kanaka ma kahi mamao o 2 a 3 mau mika no ka huina o 147.5 mau kilomika laina, e hele ana i ka hapa nui o nā moena Chitimwe i huki ʻia (Pable S6).
Ua kālele mua ʻia ka hana ma Chitimwe Beds no ka hoʻonui ʻana i nā laʻana kiʻi kiʻi i ʻike ʻia, a ʻo ka lua i kālele ʻia ma nā ʻāpana laina lōʻihi mai ke kahakai a hiki i nā uka e ʻoki ana i nā ʻāpana sedimentary like ʻole.Hōʻoiaʻiʻo kēia i kahi ʻike koʻikoʻi e pili ana nā mea waiwai ma waena o ke komohana kiʻekiʻe a me ke kahakai i ka moena o Chitimwe a i ʻole nā ​​​​mea hou aku o Late Pleistocene a me Holocene.ʻO nā mea waiwai i loaʻa ma nā waihona ʻē aʻe ma waho o ka pūnaewele, neʻe ʻia mai nā wahi ʻē aʻe o ka ʻāina, e like me ka ʻike ʻia ma ko lākou nui, ka nui, a me ke kiʻekiʻe o ke aniau.
ʻO ka lua hoʻāʻo archaeological ma kahi a me ka ʻeli ʻana o ke kahua nui, me ka micromorphology a me ka phytolith sampling, ma muli o ka protocol i wehewehe ʻia e Thompson et al.(18, 54) a me Wright et al.(19, 55).ʻO ke kumu nui, ʻo ia ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i ka hāʻawi ʻana i lalo o ka ʻāina o nā mea kiʻi a me nā mea hoʻoheheʻe peʻa i ka ʻāina nui.Hoʻokomo pinepine ʻia nā mea kiʻi kiʻi ma nā wahi a pau o Chitimwe Beds, koe naʻe nā ʻaoʻao, kahi i hoʻomaka ai ka ʻāiʻi e wehe i ka piko o ka lepo.I ka wā o ka hoʻokolokolo ʻike ʻole, ua hele ʻelua mau kānaka ma mua o Chitimwe Beds, i hōʻike ʻia ma ke ʻano he mau hiʻohiʻona ma ka palapala honua aupuni o Malawi.I ka wā i hālāwai ai kēia poʻe me nā poʻohiwi o ka lepo ʻo Chitimwe Bed, ua hoʻomaka lākou e hele ma ka ʻaoʻao, kahi e hiki ai iā lākou ke nānā aku i nā mea hana i hoʻopau ʻia mai ka lepo.Ma ka hili ʻana i nā ʻeli ʻana i luna iki (3 a 8 m) mai nā mea hana i hoʻoneʻe ʻia, hiki i ka ʻeli ʻana ke hōʻike i ko lākou kūlana in-situ e pili ana i ka sediment i loko o ia mau mea, me ka ʻole o ka pono e ʻeli nui ma hope.Hoʻonoho ʻia nā lua hoʻāʻo a hiki i 200 a 300 mau mika ka mamao mai ka lua kokoke loa, a laila e hopu ana i nā loli i ka sediment moena Chitimwe a me nā mea waiwai i loko.I kekahi mau hihia, ua hōʻike ka lua hoʻāʻo i kahi kahua i lilo i kahua ʻeli piha piha.
Hoʻomaka nā lua hoʻāʻo a pau me ka huinahā o 1 × 2 m, e alo i ka ʻākau-hema, a ua ʻeli ʻia i loko o nā ʻāpana like ʻole o 20 knm, ke ʻole ke loli nui ka waihoʻoluʻu, ke ʻano, a i ʻole ka ʻike o ka lepo.E hoʻopaʻa i ka sedimentology a me nā waiwai lepo o nā sediment a pau i ʻeli ʻia, e hele like ana ma kahi kānana maloʻo 5 mm.Inā hoʻomau ka hohonu o ka waiho ʻana ma mua o 0.8 a 1 m, e kāpae i ka ʻeli ʻana i kekahi o nā mika square ʻelua a hoʻomau i ka ʻeli ʻana i kekahi, a laila e hana i kahi "ʻanuʻu" i hiki iā ʻoe ke komo i nā papa hohonu me ka maluhia.A laila e hoʻomau i ka ʻeli ʻana a hiki i ka pōhaku moe, ma ka liʻiliʻi he 40 knm o nā sediment archeologically sterile ma lalo o ka ʻike ʻana o nā mea waiwai, a i ʻole e lilo ka ʻeli ʻana i mea palekana (hohonu) e hoʻomau.I kekahi mau hihia, pono ka hohonu o ka waiho ʻana e hoʻonui i ka lua hoʻāʻo i ke kolu mika square a komo i ka ʻauwaha ma nā ʻanuʻu ʻelua.
Ua hōʻike mua ʻia nā lua hoʻāʻo honua e ʻike pinepine ʻia nā moena ʻo Chitimwe ma nā palapala ʻāina ma muli o ko lākou ʻulaʻula kūʻokoʻa.Ke hoʻokomo lākou i nā kahawai nui a me nā sediment muliwai, a me nā sediment fan alluvial, ʻaʻole ʻike mau lākou i ka ʻulaʻula (19).Geology Ua ʻeli ʻia ka lua hoʻāʻo ma ke ʻano he lua maʻalahi i hoʻolālā ʻia e wehe i nā sediment hui ʻia o luna e hōʻike i ka ʻili o lalo o ka lepo.Pono kēia no ka mea, ua hoʻopau ʻia ka moena o Chitimwe i kahi puʻu parabolic, a aia nā sediment i hiolo ma ka pali, ʻaʻole i hana ʻia nā ʻāpana kūlohelohe a ʻokiʻoki paha.No laila, ua hana ʻia kēia mau ʻeli ʻana ma luna o ka moena ʻo Chitimwe, aia paha he pilina ma lalo o ka ʻāina ma waena o ka moena Chitimwe a me ka moena Pliocene Chiwondo ma lalo, a i ʻole i hana ʻia ma kahi e pono ai e hoʻopaʻa ʻia nā sediment terrace (55).
Hana ʻia ka ʻeli ʻana i ka ʻeli ʻana ma nā wahi e hoʻohiki ai i ka nui o nā hui ʻoihana pōhaku in-situ, ma muli o nā lua hoʻāʻo a i ʻole nā ​​​​wahi kahi e ʻike ʻia ai ka nui o nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu e hoʻopau ʻia mai ka pali.Ua kiʻi ʻia nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu nui i ʻeli ʻia mai nā ʻāpana sedimentary i ʻeli ʻokoʻa ʻia i loko o kahi huinahā o 1 × 1 m.Inā kiʻekiʻe ka mānoanoa o nā mea waiwai, ʻo ka ʻeli ʻana he 10 a i ʻole 5 cm spout.Ua huki ʻia nā hua pōhaku a pau, nā iwi mōʻalihaku a me ka ʻoker i kēlā me kēia ʻeli nui, ʻaʻohe palena nui.ʻO 5mm ka nui o ka pale.Inā ʻike ʻia nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu i ka wā o ka ʻeli ʻana, e hāʻawi ʻia lākou i kahi helu ʻike kiʻi kiʻi kiʻi pahu kūʻokoʻa, a e hāʻawi ʻia nā helu i ʻike ʻia ma ka moʻo like i nā mea i kānana ʻia.Hōʻailona ʻia nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu me ka ʻīnika mau, waiho ʻia i loko o nā ʻeke me nā hōʻailona hōʻailona, ​​a hoʻopaʻa pū ʻia me nā moʻomeheu moʻomeheu ʻē aʻe mai ke ʻano like.Ma hope o ka nānā ʻana, mālama ʻia nā relic moʻomeheu āpau i ka Cultural and Museum Center o Karonga.
Hana ʻia nā ʻeli ʻana a pau e like me ka strata kūlohelohe.Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia kēia mau mea i nā kuha, a pili ka mānoanoa o ka kuha i ka mānoanoa mea hana (no ka laʻana, inā haʻahaʻa ka nui o nā mea hana, e kiʻekiʻe ka mānoanoa o ka kuha).Hoʻopaʻa ʻia ka ʻikepili hope (no ka laʻana, nā waiwai sediment, nā pilina pili hope, a me nā ʻike o ke keʻakeʻa a me ka nui o nā mea artifact) i hoʻopaʻa ʻia ma ka waihona Access.Hoʻokumu ʻia nā ʻikepili hoʻonohonoho āpau (no ka laʻana, nā ʻike i kaha ʻia ma nā ʻāpana, kiʻekiʻe o ka pōʻaiapili, nā kihi huinaha, a me nā laʻana) ma muli o nā hoʻonohonoho Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) (WGS 1984, Zone 36S).Ma ke kahua nui, hoʻopaʻa ʻia nā helu āpau me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi kikowaena Nikon Nivo C series 5″ piha, i kūkulu ʻia ma kahi pānaʻi kūloko kokoke loa i ka ʻākau o UTM.ʻO kahi o ke kihi komohana ʻākau o kēlā me kēia wahi ʻeli a me kahi o kēlā me kēia wahi eli ʻia ʻO ka nui o ka sediment i hāʻawi ʻia ma ka Papa S5.
Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia ka ʻāpana o ka sedimentology a me ka ʻepekema lepo o nā ʻāpana ʻeli ʻia me ka United States Agricultural Part Class Program (56).Hōʻike ʻia nā ʻāpana sedimentary ma muli o ka nui o ka palaoa, ka angularity, a me nā ʻano moe.E noʻonoʻo i nā hoʻokomo ʻino a me nā haunaele e pili ana i ka ʻāpana sediment.Hoʻoholo ʻia ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ka lepo e ka hōʻiliʻili ʻana o ka sesquioxide a i ʻole carbonate i loko o ka lepo lalo.Hoʻopaʻa pinepine ʻia ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻana ma lalo o ka honua (no ka laʻana, redox, hoʻokumu ʻia nā nodule manganese koena).
Hoʻoholo ʻia ka helu hōʻiliʻili o nā laʻana OSL ma ke kumu o ka helu ʻana i nā facies e hoʻopuka i ka manaʻo hilinaʻi loa o ka makahiki kanu kanu sediment.Ma kahi o ka laʻana, ua ʻeli ʻia nā ʻauwaha e hōʻike i ka papa sedimentary authigenic.E hōʻiliʻili i nā laʻana a pau i hoʻohana ʻia no ka OSL dating ma ka hoʻokomo ʻana i kahi paipu kila opaque (ma kahi o 4 knm ke anawaena a ma kahi o 25 knm ka lōʻihi) i loko o ka moʻolelo sediment.
ʻO ka pilina OSL e ana i ka nui o ka pūʻulu o nā electrons i hoʻopaʻa ʻia i loko o nā kristal (e like me ka quartz a i ʻole feldspar) ma muli o ka ʻike ʻana i ka radiation ionizing.ʻO ka hapa nui o kēia radiation e hele mai ana mai ka palaho o nā isotopes radioactive i loko o ke kaiapuni, a ʻike ʻia kahi mea liʻiliʻi o nā ʻāpana ʻē aʻe i nā latitu tropical ma ke ʻano o ka radiation cosmic.Hoʻokuʻu ʻia nā electrons i hopu ʻia i ka wā e ʻike ʻia ai ke aniani i ka mālamalama, i hana ʻia i ka wā o ka lawe ʻana (zeroing event) a i ʻole i loko o ka hale hana, kahi e hoʻomālamalama ʻia ai ka ʻike i hiki ke ʻike i nā photons (no ka laʻana, kahi photomultiplier tube a i ʻole ke kāmela me ka hoʻouka ʻia. mea hoʻopili) Hoʻopuka ka ʻāpana haʻahaʻa ke hoʻi ka electron i ka ʻāina.Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā ʻāpana Quartz me ka nui ma waena o 150 a me 250 μm e ka sieving, ka mālama ʻana i ka waika a me ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana, a hoʻohana ʻia e like me nā aliquots liʻiliʻi (<100 particles) i kau ʻia ma luna o ka ʻili o kahi pā alumini a i ʻole ʻia i loko o kahi 300 x 300 mm maikaʻi. ua kālailai ʻia nā ʻāpana ma kahi pā alumini.Hoʻohālikelike ʻia ka nui i kanu ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi ala hoʻōla hou aliquot (57).Ma waho aʻe o ka loiloi ʻana i ka nui o ka radiation i loaʻa mai i nā kīʻaha, pono pū ka OSL dating e hoʻohālikelike i ka nui o ka dosis ma ke ana ʻana i ka ʻike radionuclide i loko o ka sediment o ka hāpana i hōʻiliʻili ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka gamma spectroscopy a i ʻole ka neutron activation analysis, a me ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka hōʻailona cosmic reference sample Kahi a hohonu o ka. kanu ʻana.Loaʻa ka hoʻoholo makahiki hope loa ma ka puʻunaue ʻana i ka nui o ke kanu ʻana me ka nui o ka nui.Eia nō naʻe, inā loaʻa ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka nui i ana ʻia e ka ʻai hoʻokahi a i ʻole ka pūʻulu o nā kīʻaha, pono ke ʻano helu helu e hoʻoholo ai i ka nui o ke kanu ʻia e hoʻohana ʻia.Ua helu ʻia ka nui i kanu ʻia ma ʻaneʻi me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke kumu hoʻohālike o ke au waena, ma ke ʻano o ka pilina aliquot hoʻokahi, a i ʻole ma ke ʻano o ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana i ka pākuʻi hoʻokahi, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke kumu hoʻohālike pau loa (58).
ʻEkolu mau hale hana kūʻokoʻa i hana i ka hōʻike OSL no kēia haʻawina.Hōʻike ʻia nā ʻano kikoʻī kikoʻī no kēlā me kēia keʻena hana ma lalo nei.Ma keʻano laulā, hoʻohana mākou i ke ʻano hoʻolaʻa hou no ka hoʻopili ʻana i ka OSL dating i nā aliquot liʻiliʻi (ʻumi o nā ʻano huaʻai) ma mua o ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka nānā ʻana i ka palaoa hoʻokahi.ʻO kēia no ka mea i ka wā o ka hoʻokolohua ulu hou ʻana, ʻoi aku ka haʻahaʻa o ka hoʻihoʻi ʻana o kahi hāpana liʻiliʻi (<2%), a ʻaʻole i piha ka hōʻailona OSL i ka pae hōʻailona kūlohelohe.ʻO ke kūlike o ka hoʻoholo ʻana o ka makahiki, ke kūlike o nā hopena i loko a ma waena o nā profile stratigraphic i hoʻāʻo ʻia, a me ka kūlike me ka wehewehe geomorphological o ka makahiki 14C o nā pōhaku carbonate ke kumu nui o kēia loiloi.Ua loiloi a hoʻokō ʻia kēlā me kēia keʻena hana i hoʻokahi kuʻikahi palaoa, akā hoʻoholo kūʻokoʻa ʻaʻole kūpono ia no ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia haʻawina.Hāʻawi ʻia nā ʻano kikoʻī kikoʻī a me nā protocol analysis i ukali ʻia e kēlā me kēia keʻena hana i nā mea hoʻohui a me nā ʻano hana.
ʻO nā mea kiʻi pōhaku i hoʻihoʻi ʻia mai nā ʻeli i hoʻomalu ʻia (BRU-I; CHA-I, CHA-II, a me CHA-III; MGD-I, MGD-II, a me MGD-III; a me SS-I) e pili ana i ka ʻōnaehana metric a me ka maikaʻi. hiʻona.E ana i ke kaumaha a me ka nui loa o kēlā me kēia mea hana (me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka unahi kikohoʻe e ana i ke kaumaha he 0.1 g; me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka caliper kikohoʻe Mitutoyo e ana i nā ana āpau he 0.01 mm).Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā moʻomeheu āpau e like me nā mea maka (quartz, quartzite, flint, etc.), ka nui o ka palaoa (maikaʻi, medium, coarse), like ʻole o ka nui o ka palaoa, ka waihoʻoluʻu, ke ʻano cortex a me ka uhi ʻana, ka hoʻopuni ʻana a me ka ʻenehana. (paʻa a ʻāpana paha) Koko a i ʻole nā ​​ʻāpana, nā ʻāpana ʻāpana, nā pōhaku hāmare, nā grenades a me nā mea ʻē aʻe).
Ana ʻia ke kumu ma kona lōʻihi loa;ka laulā kiʻekiʻe;ʻO ka laulā he 15%, 50%, a me 85% o ka lōʻihi;mānoanoa kiʻekiʻe;ʻO ka mānoanoa he 15%, 50%, a me 85% o ka lōʻihi.Ua hana pū ʻia nā ana e loiloi i nā waiwai leo o ke kumu o nā ʻiʻo hemispherical (radial a me Levallois).Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā ʻāpana paʻa a haki ʻia e like me ke ʻano hoʻonohonoho hou (pahu hoʻokahi a i ʻole multi-platform, radial, Levallois, etc.), a helu ʻia nā ʻōpala flaky ma ≥15 mm a me ≥20% o ka lōʻihi kumu.Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā cores me 5 a i ʻole ka liʻiliʻi o 15 mm ma ke ʻano he "random".Hoʻopaʻa ʻia ka uhi cortical o ka ʻili kumu holoʻokoʻa, a hoʻopaʻa ʻia ka uhi cortical pili o kēlā me kēia ʻaoʻao ma ke kumu o ka ʻiʻo hemispherical.
Ana ʻia ka lau ma kona lōʻihi loa;ka laulā kiʻekiʻe;ʻO ka laulā he 15%, 50%, a me 85% o ka lōʻihi;mānoanoa kiʻekiʻe;ʻO ka mānoanoa he 15%, 50%, a me 85% o ka lōʻihi.E wehewehe i nā ʻāpana e like me nā ʻāpana i koe (proximal, middle, distal, split ma ka ʻākau a ma ka hema).Hoʻopili ʻia ka elongation ma ka puʻunaue ʻana i ka lōʻihi kiʻekiʻe me ka laulā kiʻekiʻe.E ana i ka laula o ka anuu, ka manoanoa, a me ke kihi o ka anuu o waho o ka apana pa'i pa'a a me na apana pa'i pili, a e ho'oka'awale i na paepae e like me ke degere o ka hoomakaukau ana.E hoʻopaʻa i ka uhi cortical a me ka wahi ma nā ʻāpana a me nā ʻāpana āpau.Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā ʻaoʻao mamao e like me ke ʻano o ka hoʻopau ʻana (ka hulu, ka hinge, a me ka ʻoki luna).Ma ka ʻāpana holoʻokoʻa, e hoʻopaʻa i ka helu a me ke kuhikuhi o ka ʻili ma ka ʻāpana mua.I ka wā e hālāwai ai, e hoʻopaʻa i ka wahi hoʻololi a me ka invasiveness e like me ka protocol i hoʻokumu ʻia e Clarkson (59).Ua hoʻomaka ʻia nā hoʻolālā hoʻoponopono no ka hapa nui o nā hui ʻeli e loiloi i nā ʻano hana hoʻihoʻi a me ka pono o ka waiho ʻana o ka pūnaewele.
Hōʻike ʻia nā mea kiʻi pōhaku i hoʻihoʻi ʻia mai nā lua hoʻāʻo (CS-TP1-21, SS-TP1-16 a me NGA-TP1-8) e like me ka hoʻolālā maʻalahi ma mua o ka ʻeli ʻana.No kēlā me kēia mea kiʻi, ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia kēia mau hiʻohiʻona: ka mea maka, ka nui o ka ʻāpana, ka uhi ʻana o ka cortex, ka nui o ka nui, ka pōʻino o ka ʻili, nā ʻāpana ʻenehana, a me ka mālama ʻana i nā ʻāpana.Hoʻopaʻa ʻia nā memo wehewehe no nā hiʻohiʻona diagnostic o nā flakes a me nā cores.
Ua ʻoki ʻia nā poloka o ka sediment mai nā ʻāpana i ʻike ʻia i nā ʻeli a me nā ʻauwaha honua.Ua hoʻopaʻa ʻia kēia mau pōhaku ma ke kahua me nā kāʻei plaster a i ʻole ka pepa toilet a me ka lipine paʻi, a laila lawe ʻia i ka Geological Archeology Laboratory o ke Kulanui o Tubingen ma Kelemānia.Ma laila, maloʻo ka hāpana ma 40°C no 24 mau hola.A laila ho'ōla ʻia lākou ma lalo o ka ʻūhā, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka hui ʻana o ka resin polyester unpromoted a me ka styrene i ka ratio o 7:3.Hoʻohana ʻia ka Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide ma ke ʻano he catalyst, resin-styrene mixture (3 a 5 ml/l).I ka wā e paʻa ai ka hui resin, e hoʻomaʻamaʻa i ka hāpana ma 40°C no ka liʻiliʻi o 24 mau hola e paʻakikī loa i ka hui.E hoʻohana i ka ʻili tile e ʻoki i ka hāpana paʻakikī i ʻāpana 6 × 9 cm, e hoʻopaʻa iā lākou ma ke aniani paheʻe a wili iā lākou i ka mānoanoa o 30 μm.Ua ʻimi ʻia nā ʻāpana i loaʻa me ka scanner flatbed, a nānā ʻia me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ke kukui polarized plane, ke kukui cross-polarized, ke kukui hanana oblique, a me ka fluorescence uliuli me ka maka a me ka hoʻonui ʻia (× 50 a i × 200).ʻO ka huaʻōlelo a me ka wehewehe ʻana o nā ʻāpana lahilahi e hahai i nā alakaʻi i paʻi ʻia e Stoops (60) a me Courty et al.(61).Ua ʻoki ʻia nā nodules carbonate e hoʻoheheʻe ʻia i ka lepo i ʻohi ʻia mai ka hohonu o> 80 knm i ka hapalua i hiki ke hoʻopili ʻia ka hapalua a hana ʻia ma nā ʻāpana lahilahi (4.5 × 2.6 cm) me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi microscope stereo maʻamau a me ka microscope petrographic a me cathodoluminescence (CL) Research microscope .ʻO ka hoʻomaluʻana i nāʻano carbonate he mea makaʻala loa, no ka mea,ʻo ka hoʻokumuʻiaʻana o ka carbonate e pili ana i ka lepo e pili ana i kaʻili paʻa, aʻo ka hoʻokumuʻiaʻana o ka carbonate wai lepo e kūʻokoʻa i kaʻili a iʻole ka lepo.
Ua wili ʻia nā laʻana mai ka ʻili i ʻoki ʻia o nā nodules carbonate i hana ʻia i ka lepo a ʻoki ʻia i ka hapalua no nā loiloi like ʻole.Ua hoʻohana ʻo FS i ka stereo a me nā microscopes petrographic maʻamau o ka Geoarchaeology Working Group a me ka microscope CL o ka Experimental Mineralogy Working Group e aʻo i nā ʻāpana lahilahi, aia ia mau mea ʻelua ma Tübingen, Kelemānia.Ua wili ʻia nā sub-samples radiocarbon me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā drills precision mai kahi i koho ʻia ma kahi o 100 mau makahiki.ʻO ka hapa ʻē aʻe o nā nodules he 3 mm ke anawaena e pale aku i nā wahi me ka recrystallization lohi, nā hoʻohui mineral waiwai, a i ʻole nā ​​loli nui i ka nui o nā kristal calcite.ʻAʻole hiki ke hahai ʻia ka protocol like no nā mea hoʻohālike MEM-5038, MEM-5035 a me MEM-5055 A.Ua koho ʻia kēia mau laʻana mai nā laʻana sediment a liʻiliʻi loa e ʻoki ʻia i ka hapalua no ka ʻāpana lahilahi.Eia nō naʻe, ua hana ʻia nā haʻawina ʻāpana lahilahi ma nā laʻana micromorphological pili o nā sediment pili (me nā nodules carbonate).
Ua hoʻouna mākou i nā laʻana pili 14C i ka Center for Applied Isotope Research (CAIS) ma ke Kulanui o Georgia, Athens, USA.Hoʻopili ka laʻana carbonate me 100% phosphoric acid i loko o kahi moku hoʻoneʻe i hoʻokuʻu ʻia e hana i CO2.ʻO ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa o nā laʻana CO2 mai nā huahana hopena ʻē aʻe a me ka hoʻololi catalytic i graphite.Ua ana 'ia ka lakio o ka graphite 14C/13C me ka 0.5-MeV accelerator mass spectrometer.Hoʻohālikelike i ka lakene laʻana me ka lakio i ana ʻia me ka maʻamau oxalic acid I (NBS SRM 4990).Hoʻohana ʻia ka marble Carrara (IAEA C1) ma ke kua, a ʻo ka travertine (IAEA C2) ke hoʻohana ʻia ma ke ʻano maʻamau.Hōʻike ʻia ka hopena ma ke ʻano he pākēneka o ke kalapona hou, a ua hāʻawi ʻia ka lā i hoʻohālikelike ʻole ʻia i nā makahiki radiocarbon (makahiki BP) ma mua o 1950, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka hapalua ola 14C o 5568 mau makahiki.Kuhi ʻia ka hewa he 1-σ a hōʻike i ka hewa helu helu a me ka hoʻokolohua.Ma muli o ka waiwai δ13C i ana ʻia e ka isotope ratio mass spectrometry, ua hōʻike ʻo C. Wissing o ka Biogeology Laboratory ma Tubingen, Kelemānia, i ka lā o ka ʻāpana isotope, koe wale no UGAMS-35944r i ana ʻia ma CAIS.Ua kālailai ʻia ka laʻana 6887B ma ka lua.No ka hana ʻana i kēia, e hoʻoheheʻe i kahi sub-sample ʻelua mai ka nodule (UGAMS-35944r) mai kahi laʻana i hōʻike ʻia ma ka ʻili ʻoki.Ua hoʻohana ʻia ka INTCAL20 calibration curve (Table S4) (62) i ka ʻaoʻao hema no ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i ka haʻihaʻi ʻana o ka lewa o nā laʻana a pau i 14C a 2-σ.